Reading Difficulties

Problem: Individuals with learning disabilities may have difficulty with understanding what they read. This difficulty stems from an inability to decode and/or comprehend written information due to an information-processing deficit. This deficit may be visual and/or auditory.

Some of the most effective devices for individuals with reading disabilities take a multisensory approach. This approach uses other sensory modes, such as hearing and sight, to assist individuals who have visual and/or auditory processing deficits. Individuals with learning disabilities may have difficulty processing visual information, perceiving words incorrectly. They may often look up while reading and lose their place. They may also have difficulty recognizing their own written mistakes. Assistive technologies can make visual tasks less complicated and less strenuous.

Many of the assistive devices were originally developed for individuals with visual impairments, but these tools have been found to be very effective for people with reading disabilities. There are reading aids which will do the following:

* enter a text into a computer through a scanner;

* read back a text, scannned in or typewritten, as the words are highlighted on the screen;

* provide access to printed materials through tapes, CD-ROMs, and special internet services;

* magnify text and graphics;

* alter colors, font, or print size; and

* provide materials through videotape or videodisc.

In the next few pages, we give a brief overview of the most frequently used and most helpful technologies for reading difficulties.

Reading Difficulties Strategy I

Books on Tape and Computer Disk

* Books on Tape and Computer Disk: There are two different services to utilize for books on tape and disk.

Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic (RFB&D) is a non-profit service organization providing educational books (academic text books) on audio cassette. This service requires a $50.00 registration fee and a $25.00 membership service charge a year. Some schools, including colleges and universities should have an institutional membership. RFB&D has materials in all subject areas from grade four to the postgraduate level. RFB&D notes that “more than half of the people who use RFB&D’s services have a learning disability-not a visual disability.”

An RFB&D application requires a signature either by a professional in medicine or psychology. Applications for RFB&D can be obtained by calling (800) 221-4792; faxing (609) 987-8116, or writing to RFB&D, 20 Roszel Road, Princeton, NJ 08540. Books may be ordered by calling (800) 221-4792.

National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS), a free service of the Library of Congress, is commonly referred to as Talking Books. NLS offers leisure materials and magazines on audio cassette or audio disc. The collection includes popular novels, classical literature, poetry, biographies, and magazines. The Talking Books program is maintained by the National Library Service (NLS) for the Blind and Physically Handicapped at the Library of Congress, 1291 Taylor Street NW, Washington, DC. the telephone number is (202) 882-5500. The service has thousands of titles available or will order what the applicant requests. Talking Books are distributed through a network of regional and sub-regional libraries. There are no fees charged by the regional libraries of the NLS. Talking Books requires that your application be signed by a doctor of medicine, not a psychologist. Applications can be obtained from a Talking Books Center in your area.

Both services require a special cassette player. The cassette player uses 4-track tapes. The tape player is supplied as a free loan when you submit your application. A smaller sized version of the 4-track player can be purchased through RFB&D by calling (800) 221-4792. The players range in price from $100-200.

* Academic and Professional Books from RFB&D: RFB&D, best known for academic and professional books on audio tape, also sells a computer disk collection, called Electronic Text (E-Text), consisting largely of reference materials (computer manuals, reference works, specialized dictionaries, law books, thesaurus, and the Bible), which can be used on an individual’s personal computer and work with most adaptive equipment, such as a screen reader which will read text through a speech synthesizer (see below). The E-Text on floppy disk is available for both IBM compatible PC or Macintosh systems. As most of the computer disks and audio tapes are reference materials, RFB&D’s search and retrieval software program, BookManager, is especially useful. Audiotaped books need special playback equipment as explained above. E-Text can be used with your personal computer with screen reader and speech synthesizer equipment.

* Variable Speech Control Tape Recorders (VSC): VSCs are portable units that, unlike standard/conventional tape recorders, enable the user to play back audiotaped material (e.g. lectures, meetings, books on tape) slower or faster than the rate at which it was initially recorded without the loss of intelligibility (“chipmunk”-like speech at faster speeds). Intelligible speech at varying rates is easily achieved by adjusting speed and pitch control levers. (Portions of Strategy I drawn from Raskind, 1993)

Reading Difficulties Strategy II

Computer Assisted Reading (CAR)

There is software capability built into many computers, or it can be installed: to have text read aloud interactively (what you type is what you hear), a speech synthesizer, text to speech technology is used. With this technology you can have any text read back to you, text that you write or text that someone else has written.

* Optical Character Recognition (OCR) including speech synthesis:

OCR systems may be used to “read” material from hard copy (books, magazines, etc.). The system consists of a scanner, speech synthesizer with aid of software (i.e. screen reader software which will read any text input or documented by the user) and computer. Users scan the material into the computer which is, in turn, read aloud via the synthesizer as it is simultaneously highlighted on the screen. Options such as voice, rate of speech, and screen display may be individualized. These devices, originally designed for the visually impaired, may also be useful for persons with LD to circumvent difficulties with reading. If the user wants to use the reading machine with other software, such as word processing programs - this will make standard applications, such as WordPerfect, talk to you.

Speech synthesizers transform written text into spoken words (especially helpful to users with minimal reading skills). Text can be read back a letter, word, line, sentence, paragraph or screen at a time.

* Reading Machines (screen readers): Reading machines are electronic devices that scan a printed page and, through a synthesized voice machine, read the printed material back to the user. Screen readers can be used for home, work or school. Capabilities of the product can be expanded to suit the user’s needs and require an electrical outlet.

For reading and writing activities, students with LD may find screen reading/speech synthesis/highlighting systems useful. As the user types in data, a voice synthesizer speaks what is being typed at the same time the print is highlighted on the computer screen. In addition, reading machines scan printed materials and convert them to synthesized speech. Some reading machines can be interfaced with personal computers (the user can plug into a Macintosh, PC or laptop) while others are stand alone models that need only an electrical outlet. When purchase of a reading machine to be operated with a computer is being considered, the user should determine whether this technology will work with the user’s system (most programs work only in DOS). It is also necessary to specify which version of Windows is loaded on your system.

* Electronic Books/Books published on Disk/E-Text: Other than scanning, there are additional options for getting text into your computer. Once you have the electronic text on your machine, you can enlarge its type or have the machine read it to you. As described in Strategy I, RFB&D provides books copied to floppy disk for use with a computer. The floppy disks are available in either 3.5" or 5.25" for IBM compatible or Macintosh systems.

* Screen Magnification/Enlargement Software: People with vision problems can have difficulty reading computer screens. Screen magnification helps them to be more productive. It is a useful tool in any situation where prolonged viewing of the screen might cause eyestrain and/or decreased productivity.

There is software available which allows text to be magnified on screen. As well, alteration of colors on the screen is desirable and individual preferences catered for to make the viewing of text as comfortable as possible. Sometimes changing font or print size makes the text more legible. Text may also be magnified by low-tech means such as the use of closed circuit television.

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Writing Difficulties

Problem: Individuals with written language disorders may have difficulty with written language, which includes grammar, punctuation, spelling, organization, and coherence. Assistive technology, especially computer-based programs, can simplify pre-writing and revision processes and boost the creativity of persons with LD.

Writing software can turn a personal computer (PC) or Macintosh (MAC) into a voice-driven typewriter. With an additional card installed on a computer, the user speaks into a microphone instead of typing on the keyboard. Other aids allow the user to hear what is being written on the screen. Some programs use the computer’s internal speakers to reproduce the words auditorially, while others may require an external speech synthesizer.

Computer word processing lessens the stress about making errors, especially spelling. Cut and paste features enhance coherence by allowing the writer to move words, sentences, and paragraphs within the text. This freedom can release persons with written language deficits from concern about the mechanics of writing, allowing them to redirect their efforts toward the meaning of their writing.

Students who have access to word processing report that they write more frequently than they did without the computer. Word processing also reduces the difficulties of writing by hand and the computer gives a clear, accurate picture of what is written.

Word processing software can also facilitate a sequential approach to writing when used with an accompanying outlining software. One of the most important areas in which word processing software can help all students, including those with LD, is in the revision process. By electronically reorganizing the information through moving the text around, the student is able to write a draft and edit easily to make revisions. The student often experiences academic success and develops a sense of independence and pride in the work.

Writing Difficulties Strategy I

Using Computers for Writing

The computer is an important element in the assistive technology universe. Computer-based programs can assist persons with LD, in activities involving reading and writing.

How a computer changes the writing process:

- The computer eliminates handwriting problems.

- Proofreading is easier because the text is more legible.

- The writer may experience less frustration, including anxiety, than when using pen and paper.

- The writer may experience fewer difficulties with vocabulary and reasoning.

- Spelling and mechanics can be de-emphasized and moved to the end of the writing process.

- Outlining and organization are easier by cutting and pasting.

Beginning users will find the MacIntosh family of computers easier to learn. Many of the software processes are simple and intuitive. On-screen icons, small pictures representing a range of activities, simplify the process. The user needs only to point and click to open a program application.

Now that Microsoft Windows is available, an IBM-compatible computer (PC) can function in much the same way as a MacIntosh. Windows is a software program that interfaces the user with the disk operating system (DOS) on IBM and compatible computers. Windows software requires a PC with system 286 or higher.

It is imperative that persons with LD choose computer systems and software programs that operate with Windows or one of the MacIntosh family of computers. The icons on these more advanced machines are a significant accommodation for persons with LD.

Writing Difficulties Strategy II

Word Processing Programs

Word processing is a method by which persons with LD and other impairments can produce written documents without many of the barriers they face with conventional writing methods. In a word processing program, typewritten text gives a clear, accurate picture of what is written. Word processing programs work hand-in-hand with other computer software writing aids. These aids help with outlining, revising, predicting words, checking grammar and spelling, developing vocabulary and highlighting words and phrases.

Writing Difficulties Strategy III

Word Abbreviation and Expansion Programs

* Intelligent Word Prediction programs help poor spellers to write. Users who use a speech recognition program need only to speak the word; those lacking a speech recognition program must spell out the first few letters. In either case, a list is displayed of the most likely words. The user needs only to have the word entered into the text.

* Predictive Word Processors offer valuable support to learners for whom every word is achieved with difficulty. They offer a selection of likely words to follow what has been typed already so the user selects the most appropriate word with a single key stroke. The more sophisticated programs allow the user to add personal words to the list.

* Word Abbreviation/Expansion programs allow the writer to 1) use pre-established abbreviations (e.g., typing “asap” produces “as soon as possible” in the text) or 2) customize abbreviations for words, phrases, sentences as computer commands (e.g., “LD” yields learning disabilities.”) The writer, in other words recalls the word(s) by using an abbreviation. Such programs enable persons with limited keyboard skills to increase typing speed.

Writing Difficulties Strategy IV

Speech Recognition Software

These programs enable text to appear on the computer screen as the user speaks into a microphone rather than typing on the keyboard. Such programs are compatible with word processing programs.

Writing Difficulties Strategy V

Other Software Writing Programs

* Spell-Checking Programs may be useful to even the most competent speller. To a hesitant speller, they can be invaluable.

Spell-checking software checks for correct spelling of words in a document; each incorrect spelling is compared to the dictionary file, and an alternative spelling is offered. Spell checkers do not alert for inappropriately used words. If the word is spelled correctly, it will not be flagged. Therefore, it is important to proofread the document for inappropriate word use or to use grammar checking software which will alert the user to incorrect usage and offer alternatives.

* Outlining/Brainstorming Software

Many persons with LD have difficulty organizing topics, categories and sequence. An appropriate method for many adult students with LD is to allow them to “dump” any ideas on paper without regard to organization.

Outlining programs allow the user to “dump” information in an unstructured manner; this information can subsequently be placed in appropriate categories and ordered more easily. An outlining program assists in planning and organizing a document by creating outline headings, subheadings and key points.

* Free Form Databases

These software programs enable the user to create his own notes, of any length, on any subject. Rather than notes on paper, these electronically-stored notes can be retrieved by typing in any piece of information contained in the note. The ability to retrieve information by only remembering a fragment or piece of information contained within the note can be quite beneficial for individuals with memory and organizational difficulties. Through a simple cursor movement that highlights a keyword or phrase within each note, the user can browse through all the notes within the database until the one being sought is found.

* Encyclopedias on computer are available on CD-ROM or Internet online services. Depending on the product, one can get options for speech (the research source is read to the user) and size of print. The user who experiences difficulty with comprehension due to decoding may circumvent or bypass this area by listening to the articles read aloud. [Portions of Strategy V were drawn form Raskind 1993, 1994]

Writing Difficulties Strategy VI

Electronic Assistive Technology (not computer-based)

Hand held electronic devices, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, spell checkers and thesaurus, are useful for students and workers as they move about, without access to a computer.

* Audio cassette recorders may be used for note taking.

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Math Difficulties

* Problem: Math difficulties can be a challenge to remediate and/or accommodate. Many students with disabilities have histories of academic failure that contribute to the development of learned helplessness in math. Students may practice computing division facts but do not understand what division means. This lack of understanding fosters the student’s dependency on the teacher and promotes the belief that external help is needed to solve problems correctly. People with LD who have math problems usually have visual perception difficulties which affect their ability to see likenesses and differences in shape and form.

They may experience conceptual problems with

- measurements: What is a 2 by 4? Is a quarter of an inch smaller than three-sixteenths?

- volume: Is a half-cup larger than a fourth-cup?

- computation symbols: What is 37 x 3? What is 1/16 ö 3/7?

Because math symbols represent a way to express numerical language concepts, language skills become very important to math achievement. Many students with learning disabilities have reading difficulties that interfere with their ability to solve word problems. The fear of failure and low self-esteem cause students to become so tense that their ability to solve problems and to learn or apply math concepts is impaired. Confused thinking, disorganization, avoidance behavior and math phobia are common results.

The technology for remediating and accommodating persons with math disabilities has not developed as readily as the technology for reading and writing. However, the technology which is available now can provide beneficial assistance for some problems.

The limited technology can be of help, especially to those who have problems writing numbers down in the correct order. The most common currently available tools include the following:

- hand-held calculators that can help a learner who has problems writing numbers in the correct order;

- talking calculators that vocalize data and resulting calculations through speech synthesis;

- special-feature calculators that enable the user to select options to speak and simultaneously display numbers, functions, entire equations and results;

- on screen computer calculator programs with speech synthesis;

- large display screens for calculators and adding machines;

- color coding for maintaining columns;

- big number buttons and large keypads;

- textbooks on CD-ROM;

- video-taped math lessons.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) math courses (instruction targeted to special students) are being developed. These are particularly helpful to the user with learning disabilities if the learning is reinforced with voice output.

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Daily Living and Social Skills Difficulties

Problem: Daily living and social skills are often disregarded as an element of learning disabilities. Some people have more difficulty than others in environments less structured than school and work.

Some persons with learning disabilities face challenges in their day-to-day activities besides the more familiar writing, reading, and math problems. These highly documented academic problems clearly permeate the lives of persons with LD and have a significant impact on daily living. But there are challenges which will arise within the course of daily living and in social interaction.

Daily living requires the fulfillment of many tasks like conceptualizing directions; reading maps, signs, and menus; dialing phone numbers; filling out job applications; playing board games and cards; telling time; staying abreast of current news; managing personal information; staying on task; purchasing retail items; managing time; scheduling and keeping appointments; and, in general, organizing their lives.

The absence of social skills is also a disability. Everyone from time to time experiences deep discomfort in social situations, especially persons with LD. This discomfort often arises from the individual’s low self-esteem and a lack of self-confidence. For example, Jonathan’s reluctance to raise his hand in class or confront a disruptive co-worker could be a direct result of his struggles growing up as a person with LD. He thinks that he is not smart enough or capable of asking a question or expressing himself in a stressful work situation.

But there is another level which may be affecting Jonathan, one in which lack of social skills is based not only on low self-esteem or confidence, but also on neurological impairments which affect social skills. For example, Mary has trouble getting a job. During her interviews she speaks too loudly and avoids eye contact; she asks personal questions of the interviewer, rambles about her own personal life, and strays far afield when she is asked a direct question. To Mary her behavior appears appropriate and her disability prevents her from recognizing her inappropriate social behavior.

Common manifestations of this social disability may include the following:

clumsiness; lack of eye contact; asking inappropriate or blunt questions and giving the same type of responses; inability to control voice volume and tone; failure to “take turns” in conversation, to initiate conversations, to form healthy relationships with family and friends, to date, to maintain personal hygiene, to dress appropriately for the occasion, and many others.

Assistive technology remains limited in these areas. What high-tech tools are on the market appear below.

Strategies to Enhance Daily Living and Social Skills Difficulties

* Headphones or earplugs to shut out distractions and enhance concentration while reading or writing are beneficial to persons with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD).

* Amplification for Students with LD improves listening conditions and attention levels by amplifying the instructor’s voice, and reducing the effects of background noise. A typical product is composed of two basic parts: a wireless transmitter with a microphone (worn by the instructor) and a receiver with headset or earphone (worn by the student). The system carries the speaker’s voice directly from the speaker’s mouth to the listener’s ear, helping to make the speaker’s voice more prominent. This device improves auditory discrimination and auditory attention by allowing the individual to focus on the speaker, overriding extraneous and distracting background noise.

* Variable Speed Control Tape Recorders (VSC) enable the user to play back audiotaped material at rates that are slower or faster than those at which it was initially recorded. The ability to adjust speech rates means that users can reduce the speed of playback to a more comprehensible level without the loss of voice quality. Similarly, VSC tape recorders enable the user to increase the speech rate in order to reduce the amount of time it takes to listen to class lectures or prerecorded text.

* Personal Data Managers are available as software programs. Typical features include monthly calendars, daily schedules, planners, a clock and alarm, memo files, “to do” lists, address books, telephone directories, and check registers. Personal Data Managers allow the user to store, organize, and retrieve vast amounts of personal information useful for persons with organizational and/or memory difficulties.

* Free Form Databases are software programs that enable the user to create her own notes of any length on any subject. Rather than notes on paper, these electronically stored notes can be retrieved by typing in any piece of information contained within the note. The ability to retrieve information by only remembering a fragment or piece of information can be quite beneficial for individuals with memory and organizational difficulties. Through a simple cursor movement that highlights each note, the user can browse through all the notes within the database until the one being sought is found. [Raskind, 1993, 1994]

* Interactive CD-ROM programs are the most effective media for assisting those persons with social skills difficulties. They enable the user to role play in simulations of real-life situations and to place the user in decision-making positions.

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